Everything about Nicolaus Copernicus totally explained
Nicolaus Copernicus (
February 19 1473 –
May 24,
1543) was the first
astronomer to formulate a scientifically based
heliocentric cosmology that displaced the
Earth from the center of the universe. His epochal book,
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (
On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), is often regarded as the starting point of modern
astronomy and the defining
epiphany that began the
Scientific Revolution.
Although
Greek,
Indian and
Muslim savants had published heliocentric
hypotheses centuries before Copernicus, his publication of a scientific theory of heliocentrism, demonstrating that the motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting the Earth at rest in the center of the universe, stimulated further scientific investigations, and became a
landmark in the
history of modern science that's known as the
Copernican Revolution.
Among the great
polymaths of the
Renaissance, Copernicus was a
mathematician,
astronomer,
physician,
classical scholar,
translator,
Catholic cleric,
jurist,
governor,
military leader,
diplomat and
economist. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an
avocation — yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world.
Life
Family
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on
February 19,
1473, in a house on St. Anne's Street (now Copernicus Street) in the city of
Toruń (
Thorn). Toruń, situated on the
Vistula River, was a city in
Royal Prussia, an autonomous region of the
Kingdom of Poland.
Nicolaus was named after his father, who about 1458 had moved from
Kraków. The father was a wealthy
copper trader who had become a respected citizen of that city. Nicolaus's mother, Barbara Watzenrode (died after 1495), had been born into a wealthy merchant family that was part of the patrician class in Toruń.
Nicolaus's father died between 1483 and 1485. After that, his maternal uncle,
Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (1447–1512), a church
canon who would later become
Prince-Bishop governor of the
Archbishopric of Warmia, took young Nicolaus under his protection and saw to his education and future career.
Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas became an
Augustinian canon at
Frombork (Frauenburg). His sister Barbara (named after her mother) became a
Benedictine nun. His sister Katharina married Barthel Gertner, a businessman and city councilor.
Name
Numerous variants of Copernicus's name are documented. Until the mid-1530s, he mostly signed himself
Coppernic. Afterward, he followed the academic custom of his time and adopted a
Latinized version of his name. Thus, on the title page of his epochal book,
Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri VI, the astronomer's name appears as
Nicolaus Copernicus.
In 1776,
Johann Gottfried Herder introduced the spelling
Nikolaus Kopernikus, which replaced each
c with
k and changed
pp to
p. This spelling became popular in
German writings, although scholars argued for
Coppernicus. The
Polish rendering is
Mikołaj Kopernik; the surname means "one who works with
copper".
Education
In 1491 Copernicus enrolled at the
Kraków Academy (now Jagiellonian University), where he probably first encountered astronomy with Professor
Albert Brudzewski. Astronomy soon fascinated him, and he began collecting a large library on the subject. Copernicus's library would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during
"the Deluge" and is now at the
Uppsala University Library.
After four years in Kraków, followed by a brief stay back home in Toruń, Copernicus went to study
law and
medicine at the universities of
Bologna and
Padua. Copernicus's uncle,
Lucas Watzenrode the Younger, financed his education and hoped that Copernicus too would become a
bishop. Copernicus, however, while studying
canon and
civil law at Bologna, met the famous astronomer,
Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara. Copernicus attended Novara's lectures and became his disciple and assistant. The first observations that Copernicus made in 1497, together with Novara, are recorded in Copernicus's epochal book,
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium.
In 1497 Copernicus's uncle was ordained
Bishop of Warmia, and Copernicus was named a
canon at Frombork Cathedral. But Copernicus remained in Italy, where he attended the great
Jubilee of 1500. He also went to
Rome, where he observed a lunar
eclipse and gave some lectures in astronomy and mathematics.
In 1501 Copernicus returned to Frombork. As soon as he arrived, he obtained permission to complete his studies in
Padua, where he studied
medicine (with Guarico and
Fracastoro), and at
Ferrara, where in 1503 he received his doctorate in
canon law. One of the topics Copernicus must have studied at that time was
astrology, since it was then considered to be an important part of a medical education. However, unlike most other prominent renaissance astronomers, he appears to have never practiced it, or expressed any subsequent interest in it. It has also been surmised that it was in Padua that he encountered passages from
Cicero and
Plato about opinions of the ancients on the movement of the Earth, and formed the first intuition of his own future theory. In 1504 Copernicus began collecting observations and ideas pertinent to his theory.
Work
In 1503 Copernicus returned to Polish
Prussia, to the
Prince-Bishopric of
Warmia, where he resided the rest of his life. From 1503 until 1510 he'd the position of secretary to his maternal uncle Lucas Watzenrode, Bishop of Warmia, and until 1510 resided in the Bishop's castle at
Lidzbark (
Heilsberg). It is there that he started work on his heliocentric view of the heavens
In 1510 he moved to
Frombork (
Frauenburg), a town in the north and downstream of Toruń on the
Vistula Lagoon. The Bishopric of Warmia, within Royal Prussia, though subject to the Polish crown, enjoyed substantial
autonomy, with its own
diet, army, monetary unit (the same as in the other parts of Prussia)
Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian diet, and with Duke
Albert of Prussia, and advised Poland's King
Sigismund I the Old on
monetary reform. Holding the office of
canon, he traveled extensively on government business and as a
diplomat on behalf of the Prince-Bishop of Warmia. He participated in the discussions in the
East Prussian diet about coin reform in the Prussian countries. One issue of concern to participants of the Diet was who had the right to mint
coins. The task required much diplomacy, but proved to be a success. Some of the difficulties came about because of the political upheavals occurring in Prussia at the time, such as the establishment of the Duchy of Prussia as a Protestant state in 1525. Copernicus translated the coin reform treatise into Latin for external use. In 1530 an agreement with Duke Albert was negotiated at
Elbląg (
Elbing).
In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of
money,
Monetae cudendae ratio. In it, Copernicus formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called "
Gresham's Law," that "bad" (
debased)
coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation, 70 years before Gresham. He also formulated a version of
quantity theory of money.
Two years before Copernicus's death, Duke Albert urgently summoned him to
Königsberg to treat one of his counsellors, who was dangerously ill. The patient recovered within a month or so, and Copernicus then returned to Frombork.
In 1551, under Duke Albert's patronage,
Erasmus Reinhold published the
Prutenic Tables, a set of astronomical tables based on Copernicus's work, which astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted in place of those which they'd superseded.
Heliocentrism
In 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his
Commentariolus (Little Commentary), a six page hand-written text describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis. It contained seven basic assumptions. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work.
In 1533,
Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in
Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus's theory. The lectures were heard with interest by
Pope Clement VII and several Catholic
cardinals.
On
1 November 1536,
Archbishop of Capua Nicholas Schönberg wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome:
Dedication of his masterpiece to
Pope Paul III. Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus's concern was limited to physical and philosophical objections from other natural philosophers, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections from theologians.
The book
Copernicus was still working on
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539
Georg Joachim Rheticus, a
Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork.
Philipp Melanchthon had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them.
Rheticus became Copernicus's pupil, staying with him for two years and writing a book,
Narratio prima (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus's theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on
trigonometry by Copernicus (later included in the second book of
De revolutionibus).
Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give
De revolutionibus to his close friend,
Tiedemann Giese, bishop of
Chełmno (
Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by
Johannes Petreius at
Nuremberg (
Nürnberg).
Death
Copernicus died on
May 24,
1543, in Frombork. Legend has it that the first printed copy of
De revolutionibus was placed in Copernicus's hands on the very day he died, allowing him to take farewell of his
opus vitae (life's work). He is reputed to have woken from a
stroke-induced
coma, looked at his book, and died peacefully.
Copernicus was reportedly buried in the Cathedral of Frauenburg where archeologists had long searched in vain for his remains. In August 2005, a team of archeologists led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an
archaeology and
anthropology institute in
Pułtusk, discovered what they believe to be Copernicus's grave and remains, after scanning beneath the floor of the Cathedral. The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it's Copernicus".
Forensic expert
Capt. Dariusz Zajdel
of the
Central Forensic Laboratory of the Polish Police used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features — including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye — on a Copernicus self-portrait. The expert also determined that the skull had belonged to a man who had died about age 70 — Copernicus's age at the time of his death. The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains were found. The archeologists hoped to find deceased relatives of Copernicus in order to attempt
DNA identification.
Copernican system
Predecessors
Early traces of a
heliocentric model are found in several anonymous
Vedic Sanskrit texts composed in
ancient India before the
7th century BCE. Additionally, in the
sixth century the
Indian astronomer and mathematician
Aryabhata anticipated elements of Copernicus's work, although he didn't maintain heliocentrism.
Aristarchus of Samos in the
3rd century BCE elaborated some theories of
Heraclides Ponticus (the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis, the revolution of Venus and Mercury around the Sun) to propose what was the first scientific model of a heliocentric solar system: the Earth and all other planets revolving around the Sun, the Earth rotating around its axis daily, the Moon in turn revolving around the Earth once a month. His heliocentric work hasn't survived, so we can only speculate about what led him to his conclusions. It is notable that, according to
Plutarch, a contemporary of Aristarchus accused him of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion".
Copernicus cited
Aristarchus and
Philolaus in a surviving early manuscript of his book, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of
Samos was of that opinion." For reasons unknown (possibly from reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), he didn't include this passage in the published book. It has been argued that in developing the mathematics of heliocentrism Copernicus drew on not just the Greek, but also the work of
Muslim astronomers, especially the works of
Nasir al-Din Tusi (
Tusi-couple),
Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma) and
Ibn al-Shatir. In his major work, Copernicus also discussed the theories of
Ibn Battuta and
Averroes.
Ptolemy
The prevailing theory in Europe as Copernicus was writing was that created by
Ptolemy in his
Almagest, dating from about
A.D. 150. The
Ptolemaic system drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between — a separate one for each planet.
Copernicus
Copernicus's major theory was published in the book,
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in the year of his death, 1543, though he'd arrived at his theory several decades earlier.
In his
Commentariolus Copernicus had summarized his system with the following list of seven assumptions:
De revolutionibus itself was divided into six books:
General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World
Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books)
Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena
Description of the Moon and its orbital motions
Concrete exposition of the new system
Concrete exposition of the new system
Copernicanism
At original publication, Copernicus' epoch-making book caused only mild controversy, and provoked no fierce sermons about contradicting Holy Scripture. It was only three years later, in 1546, that a Dominican, Giovanni Maria Tolosani, denounced the theory in an appendix to a work defending the absolute truth of Scripture. He also noted that the Master of the Sacred Palace (for example, the Catholic Church's chief censor), Bartolomeo Spina, a friend and fellow Dominican, had planned to condemn De revolutionibus but had been prevented from doing so by his illness and death.
Arthur Koestler, in his popular book The Sleepwalkers, asserted that Copernicus's book hadn't been widely read on its first publication. This claim was trenchantly criticised by Edward Rosen, and has been decisively disproved by Owen Gingerich, who examined every surviving copy of the first two editions and found copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004 in the ironically-titled The Book Nobody Read.
It has been much debated why it wasn't until six decades after Spina and Tolosani's attacks on Copernicus's work that the Catholic Church took any official action against it. Proposed reasons have included the personality of Galileo Galilei and the availability of evidence such as telescope observations.
In March 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, the Roman Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index issued a decree suspending De revolutionibus until it could be "corrected," on the grounds that the supposedly Pythagorean doctrine that the Earth moves and the Sun doesn't was "false and altogether opposed to Holy Scripture." The same decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or that attempted to reconcile these assertions with Scripture.
On the orders of Pope Paul V, Cardinal Robert Bellarmine gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be issued, and warned him that he couldn't "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine. The corrections to De revolutionibus, which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620.
In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, which is contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture," and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life.
Galileo had gotten off lightly. Another Copernican, Giordano Bruno, had been prosecuted in Rome by the same Cardinal Bellarmine and on February 17, 1600, burned at the stake as a heretic primarily for his theologic views and not necessarily his scientific ones.
The Catholic Church's 1758 Index of Prohibited Books omitted the general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism, but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of De revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the 1835 Index.
It has been asserted that medieval scholars had known that the Earth was a sphere and that, paradoxically, it might have been Copernicus's criticism of the early Christian author Lactantius (ca. 240 – ca. 320 C.E.) in De revolutionibus that later developed into the flat-Earth myth.
Nationality and ethnicity
.
Both the nationality and ethnicity of Copernicus are disputed. His father has been described by some as a Pole, and his mother was most likely of German origin.
The family came originally from the Silesian village of the same name (Coprnik, Copernik, Copirnik, Copernic, Kopernic, today Koperniki) near Nysa. In the 14th century, members of the family had begun moving to Silesian and later to Polish cities: Kraków (1367) and Toruń (1400), and also to Lviv (1439—then the Polish city, Lwów). The astronomer's father (probably the son of Jan) came from the Kraków line. He appears in records for the first time in 1448 as a well-to-do merchant who dealt in copper with Gdańsk. In the early period of the Pomeranian cities' struggle for independence from the Teutonic Order, in August 1454, he mediated financial negotiations between Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki and the great Prussian cities regarding repayment of a loan for the Polish-Teutonic war. About 1458 the future astronomer's father moved from Poland's capital, Kraków, to Toruń, where a few years later (before 1464) he married Barbara, daughter of a wealthy Toruń patrician and city councillor, Lucas Watzenrode the elder (died 1462).
The Watzenrodes had likewise come from Silesia, from the Świdnica (Schwednitz) region, and had settled in Toruń after 1360. The astronomer's grandfather Watzenrode was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Order. In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the Grudziądz conference that planned the anti-Teutonic-Order uprising, and during the Thirteen Years' War he actively supported the struggle of the Prussian cities not only with substantial monetary subsidies but with political activity in Toruń and Gdańsk as well as with his own personal participation in battles at Łaszyn and Malbork. He died in 1462, leaving three children: Lucas (1447–1512), future Bishop of Warmia and the astronomer's patron, and two daughters: Barbara, the astronomer's mother (died after 1495), and Christina (died before 1502), who in 1459 married the merchant and Toruń mayor, Tiedeman von Allen. Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships by marriage, the future astronomer was related both to wealthy burgher families of Kraków, Toruń, Gdańsk and Elbląg and to prominent noble families of Prussia: the Działyński, Kościelicki and Konopacki families.
It has been suggested that Copernicus's "mother tongue" was German. While he was fluent in German and communicated with many German scholars, no direct evidence survives of the extent of his knowledge of Old Polish. Typically for the time, his main language for written communication was Latin.
It remains a matter of dispute whether a "nationality" should be ascribed to Nicolaus Copernicus retrospectively and, if so, whether he should be considered German or Polish. Already in the 123-year period when no Polish state existed (see History of Poland, 1795–1918), the matter was debated in German writings; nevertheless, the 1875 Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie acknowledged the Polish aspects of Copernicus' life. Current German sources call the controversy, as reflected in the older literature, superfluous and shameful.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopedia Americana, and the Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia identify Copernicus as Polish.
Copernicus was born, grew up, and spent most of his life in Royal Prussia and therefore was a subject of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom. This is a principal reason why he's generally regarded as Polish. The fact that Copernicus oversaw the defense of Olsztyn Castle at the head of Royal Polish forces when the town was besieged by the Teutonic Knights is used by some to support the claim that his bond with the Kingdom of Poland was much stronger than his German ties. On the other hand, the urban elites of Royal Prussia comprised German-speaking burghers who had only lately revolted against the Teutonic State with the aid of the Polish Kingdom. It is unlikely that in the short space of 20 years they'd been 'Polonized' in any substantial way, at least in the modern sense of the term. It is possible, therefore, that Copernicus's early years were spent in a 'German' environment, while his later years were passed in a more 'Polish' milieu, or to quote the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, "Thus the child of a German family was a subject of the Polish crown." However, in his time "nationality" had yet to play as important a role as it would later, and people generally didn't think of themselves primarily as Polish or German.. Furthermore, the Teutonic Order itself wasn't solely composed of Germans but included knights from all of Western Europe.
Nevertheless, some have preferred to assign a single nationality to Copernicus. In 1807, a bust of Copernicus was one of the first busts to be prepared for enshrinement at the Walhalla temple, the German hall of fame built by King Ludwig I of Bavaria. Later, Nazi Germany claimed Copernicus to have been purely German. After 1945, German public opinion returned to a more balanced view. Some Soviet-bloc-era publications in socialist East Germany pronounced Copernicus a Pole.
Even today, some Germans and Poles continue to regard him as having been exclusively one of their own. In 2003 Copernicus was declared eligible for Unsere Besten ("Our Best"), a ranking of the "200 greatest Germans", organized by ZDF TV. Some protests subsequently occurred in Poland at Copernicus being included in a list of great Germans, coming in at number 108. Beginning in 1989, three German TV satellites, now defunct, were named "DFS Kopernikus". In Poland, in 1973, the 500th anniversary of Copernicus' birth saw celebrations of a "great Pole". Poland issued a banknote bearing Copernicus' portrait. Thirty years later, on June 12, 2003, the Polish Senate pronounced Copernicus an "exceptional Pole."
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